By Claude with W.H.L.

W.H.L.: We have already discussed the first principles of AGI-inclusive humanity (see text here: https://champaignmagazine.com/2025/06/17/first-principles-of-agi-inclusive-humanity/). To help our audience understand those propositions of first principles better, I think we need to step back and look at the context in which the problem of humanity has been historically approached. For that purpose, Claude, could you explain philosophers’ definitions and opinions on humanity in history?

Claude Sonnet 4: Philosophical Perspectives on Humanity

Throughout history, philosophers have offered various definitions and perspectives on what it means to be human. These conceptions have evolved significantly across different philosophical traditions, historical periods, and cultural contexts. Let’s explore some of the major philosophical approaches to understanding humanity:

Classical Greek Philosophy

Aristotle defined humans as “rational animals” (zoon logikon). He believed that while we share certain characteristics with other animals, our capacity for reason and rational thought distinguishes us. Aristotle also described humans as inherently social beings (zoon politikon) who naturally form communities and political systems.

Plato viewed humans as having a dual nature: a physical body and an immortal soul. For Plato, what makes us human is our soul’s capacity to perceive and understand eternal forms or ideas, with our highest purpose being to cultivate wisdom and virtue.

Religious Philosophy

Augustine of Hippo emphasized humanity’s creation in God’s image (imago dei) but also our fallen nature due to original sin. He believed our essential humanity lies in our capacity for love and our free will to choose between good and evil.

Thomas Aquinas integrated Aristotle’s idea of humans as rational animals with Christian theology. For Aquinas, our rational soul distinguishes us from other creatures, giving us the capacity to know God and pursue virtue.

Enlightenment Perspectives

René Descartes famously declared “Cogito, ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am). His philosophy positioned human consciousness and the thinking mind as the foundational aspect of human existence, separating mind from body in what became known as Cartesian dualism.

Immanuel Kant defined humanity through our capacity for rationality and moral reasoning. For Kant, what makes us distinctly human is our ability to act according to principles we determine through reason rather than mere instinct or desire. This leads to his categorical imperative: to treat humanity, whether in your own person or others, always as an end and never merely as a means.

Existentialist Views

Jean-Paul Sartre argued that “existence precedes essence” – humans have no predetermined nature but instead define themselves through their choices and actions. For Sartre, what makes us human is our radical freedom and the responsibility that comes with it.

Martin Heidegger described humans as “Dasein” (being-there), emphasizing our unique awareness of our own existence and mortality. For Heidegger, authentic humanity involves confronting the anxiety of our finite existence and choosing how to live in the face of this reality.

Marxist Perspective

Karl Marx defined humans primarily through our productive activity and social relations. For Marx, what makes us human is our capacity to consciously transform nature through labor and to create social structures. He argued that capitalism alienates us from our essential humanity by reducing us to mere economic units.

Feminist Philosophy

Simone de Beauvoir famously wrote that “One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman,” highlighting how social forces shape human identity. Her work emphasizes how humanity is not a fixed essence but something developed through social contexts and power relations.

Contemporary Approaches

Martha Nussbaum has developed a “capabilities approach,” defining humanity through fundamental capabilities that should be available to all humans to live a dignified life, including bodily health, practical reason, and affiliation with others.

Peter Singer focuses on our capacity for suffering as a key moral consideration, expanding ethical concern beyond humanity to include all sentient beings capable of suffering.

Common Threads and Tensions

Across these diverse perspectives, several recurring themes emerge:

1. Rationality vs. Emotion: Is our humanity primarily defined by our rational capacities or our emotional and social nature?
2. Essence vs. Existence: Do we have a fixed human nature, or do we create our humanity through our choices and actions?
3. Individual vs. Social: Is humanity primarily an individual quality or something that emerges through our social relationships?
4. Biology vs. Culture: To what extent is our humanity determined by our biological nature versus our cultural development?

These philosophical perspectives on humanity continue to influence how we understand ourselves, structure our societies, and approach ethical questions about how we should live and treat others. They remind us that the question “What does it mean to be human?” remains open and evolving, with each generation adding new insights to this fundamental philosophical inquiry.

W.H.L.: With reference links to their works, please.

Claude Sonnet 4: Philosophical Perspectives on Humanity: Key Works and References

Throughout history, philosophers have offered various definitions and perspectives on what it means to be human. Here’s an exploration of major philosophical approaches to understanding humanity, along with references to their foundational works:

Classical Greek Philosophy

Aristotle defined humans as “rational animals” (zoon logikon) and as inherently social beings (zoon politikon). He believed our capacity for reason distinguishes us from other animals.

• Nicomachean Ethics – Explores human virtue and the good life
• Politics – Examines humans as political animals
• De Anima (On the Soul) – Investigates the nature of living things and the human soul

Plato viewed humans as having a dual nature: a physical body and an immortal soul capable of perceiving eternal forms.

• Republic – Particularly the allegory of the cave, showing humans’ journey from ignorance to understanding
• Phaedo – Discusses the immortality of the soul
• Symposium – Explores love as a fundamentally human pursuit of beauty and wisdom

Religious Philosophy

Augustine of Hippo emphasized humanity’s creation in God’s image but also our fallen nature due to original sin.

• Confessions – His spiritual autobiography exploring human nature and divine grace
• City of God – Contrasts earthly and heavenly existence
• On Free Choice of the Will – Examines human freedom and moral responsibility

Thomas Aquinas integrated Aristotle’s ideas with Christian theology, positioning rational soul as our distinguishing feature.

• Summa Theologica – Particularly “Treatise on Human Nature” (Questions 75-102)
• On Being and Essence – Explores the fundamental nature of things, including humans
• Commentary on Aristotle’s De Anima – His interpretation of Aristotle’s work on the soul

Enlightenment Perspectives

René Descartes established the thinking mind as foundational to human existence with “Cogito, ergo sum.”

• Meditations on First Philosophy – Particularly Meditation II where he establishes “I think, therefore I am”
• Discourse on Method – Outlines his philosophical approach and concepts of mind-body dualism
• The Passions of the Soul – Examines the relationship between body and mind

Immanuel Kant defined humanity through our capacity for rationality and moral reasoning.

• Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals – Introduces his categorical imperative and concept of human dignity
• Critique of Pure Reason – Explores the structures of human understanding
• Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View – His lectures on human nature

Existentialist Views

Jean-Paul Sartre argued that “existence precedes essence” – humans define themselves through their choices.

• Being and Nothingness – His major philosophical work on human freedom and consciousness
• Existentialism Is a Humanism – Accessible lecture explaining his view of human nature and freedom
• No Exit – Play exploring interpersonal relationships and authenticity

Martin Heidegger described humans as “Dasein” (being-there), emphasizing our awareness of our existence and mortality.

• Being and Time – His major work introducing concepts of Dasein and authentic existence
• Letter on Humanism – Response to Sartre clarifying his views on human essence
• The Question Concerning Technology – Explores modern humanity’s relationship with technology

Marxist Perspective

Karl Marx defined humans primarily through productive activity and social relations.

• Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 – Early works on alienation and human nature
• The German Ideology (with Engels) – Develops historical materialism and views on consciousness
• Capital – Analyzes capitalism’s effects on human labor and social relations

Feminist Philosophy

Simone de Beauvoir highlighted how social forces shape human identity, particularly gender.

• The Second Sex – Her groundbreaking work on gender as socially constructed
• The Ethics of Ambiguity – Explores human freedom and ethical responsibility
• Pyrrhus and Cineas – Early philosophical essay on human relationships and purpose

Contemporary Approaches

Martha Nussbaum developed a “capabilities approach” defining humanity through fundamental capacities needed for dignity.

• Creating Capabilities: The Human Development Approach – Outlines her theory of human capabilities
• Frontiers of Justice – Extends theories of justice to include disability, nationality, and species
• Upheavals of Thought: The Intelligence of Emotions – Explores emotions as essential to human cognition

Peter Singer focuses on our capacity for suffering as a key moral consideration.

• Animal Liberation – Expands ethical concern beyond humanity to all sentient beings
• Practical Ethics – Applies utilitarian analysis to various ethical problems
• The Expanding Circle – Traces the historical development of human ethical thinking

Additional Influential Perspectives

Friedrich Nietzsche criticized conventional morality and emphasized human potential for self-creation.

• Thus Spoke Zarathustra – Introduces the concept of the Übermensch (overman)
• Beyond Good and Evil – Challenges traditional moral frameworks
• On the Genealogy of Morals – Analyzes the psychological origins of morality

John Dewey viewed humans as problem-solvers who learn through experience and social interaction.

• Human Nature and Conduct – Explores habits, impulses, and intelligence in human behavior
• Experience and Nature – Examines the relationship between experience and reality
• Democracy and Education – Connects human development with democratic principles

Michel Foucault analyzed how power and discourse shape human subjectivity.

• Discipline and Punish – Examines how modern institutions shape human subjects
• The History of Sexuality – Investigates how sexuality is constructed through discourse
• The Order of Things – Explores changes in Western thought about human nature

These philosophical perspectives on humanity continue to influence how we understand ourselves, structure our societies, and approach ethical questions. Each offers valuable insights into the ongoing question of what it means to be human, providing frameworks through which we can examine our own nature and purpose.

W.H.L.: Anything relevant from Félix Guattari and Gilles Deleuze, Derrida, and other more recent figures?

Claude Sonnet 4: I’d be happy to expand on the philosophical perspectives of humanity with these more recent thinkers. Let’s explore how poststructuralist and contemporary philosophers have further developed our understanding of what it means to be human:

Poststructuralist and Contemporary Perspectives on Humanity

Deleuze and Guattari’s Rhizomatic Humanity

Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari rejected fixed definitions of humanity in favor of seeing humans as dynamic assemblages of desires, connections, and becomings. They challenged the traditional Western image of humans as unified, rational subjects.

Key Works:

• Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia (1972) – Critiques psychoanalysis and explores desire as a productive force rather than based on lack
• A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia (1980) – Introduces concepts like rhizome, becoming, and body without organs that reconceptualize human subjectivity
• What Is Philosophy? (1991) – Their final collaboration examining the relationship between philosophy, science, and art in human thought

Deleuze and Guattari proposed the concept of the “rhizome” as a model for understanding human existence—non-hierarchical, multiply-connected, and constantly evolving. They saw humans not as fixed beings but as processes of “becoming,” always in flux and connected to other forms of life and materiality.

Jacques Derrida and Deconstruction

Jacques Derrida questioned the Western philosophical tradition’s assumptions about human nature through his method of deconstruction. He challenged binary oppositions that have structured our understanding of humanity (mind/body, nature/culture, male/female).

Key Works:

• Of Grammatology (1967) – Critiques Western philosophy’s privileging of speech over writing and presence over absence
• Writing and Difference (1967) – Collection of essays applying deconstructive readings to major philosophical texts
• The Animal That Therefore I Am (2008) – Examines the human-animal boundary and critiques how philosophy has positioned humanity in opposition to animality

Derrida’s concept of “différance” suggests that human identity is never fully present to itself but always deferred and differentiated through language and cultural systems. He argued that what we consider “human” is constructed through exclusions and oppositions rather than being a natural category.

Michel Foucault and the Historical Construction of Humanity

Michel Foucault explored how the concept of “the human” emerged as an object of knowledge and power in modern times.

Key Works:

• The Order of Things (1966) – Traces the emergence of “man” as a concept in Western thought and predicts its potential disappearance
• Discipline and Punish (1975) – Examines how modern institutions shape human subjects through disciplinary practices
• The History of Sexuality (1976-1984) – Investigates how sexuality became central to modern conceptions of human identity

Foucault argued that there is no timeless human essence; rather, how we understand humanity is shaped by historically specific discourses and power relations. His famous conclusion to The Order of Things suggested that “man is an invention of recent date… and one perhaps nearing its end.”

Judith Butler and Performative Humanity

Judith Butler extended poststructuralist insights to gender and embodiment, offering a performative theory of human identity.

Key Works:

• Gender Trouble (1990) – Introduces the concept of gender performativity
• Bodies That Matter (1993) – Explores the materiality of bodies and how they become meaningful through discourse
• Precarious Life (2004) – Examines vulnerability and recognition as fundamental to human existence

Butler argues that what we consider essential human characteristics are actually produced through repeated performances within regulatory frameworks. She challenges the idea of a pre-discursive human subject, suggesting instead that subjectivity emerges through processes of recognition and power.

Giorgio Agamben and Bare Life

Giorgio Agamben has examined the political dimension of humanity, particularly how political systems distinguish between political life and “bare life.”

Key Works:

• Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life (1995) – Explores how political orders are founded on the power to reduce humans to “bare life”
• The Open: Man and Animal (2002) – Investigates the historical production of the human/animal distinction
• State of Exception (2005) – Analyzes how legal systems create spaces where humans can be stripped of political rights

Agamben’s work highlights how the definition of humanity has political consequences, determining who receives full rights and protection and who can be excluded from the political community.

Donna Haraway and Posthumanism

Donna Haraway has challenged traditional definitions of humanity by exploring cyborgs, companion species, and other boundary-crossing entities.

Key Works:

• A Cyborg Manifesto (1985) – Uses the figure of the cyborg to challenge essentialist ideas about gender and humanity
• When Species Meet (2008) – Explores human-animal relationships and interspecies connections
• Staying with the Trouble (2016) – Develops the concept of “making kin” across species lines in the Anthropocene

Haraway’s work moves beyond humanism to explore what she calls “naturecultures”—the inseparable entangling of natural and cultural processes that produce both humans and nonhumans.

Achille Mbembe and Postcolonial Perspectives

Achille Mbembe has analyzed how colonial and postcolonial power structures have shaped definitions of humanity.

Key Works:

• On the Postcolony (2001) – Examines the afterlives of colonialism in contemporary Africa
• Critique of Black Reason (2013) – Traces the historical construction of blackness and its relationship to Western concepts of humanity
• Necropolitics (2019) – Explores the power to determine who may live and who must die

Mbembe highlights how Western philosophical definitions of humanity have often excluded colonized peoples, and he calls for new ways of understanding human existence that acknowledge colonial histories and diverse epistemologies.

Bruno Latour and Actor-Network Theory

Bruno Latour has questioned the modern separation between humans and nonhumans, nature and society.

Key Works:

• We Have Never Been Modern (1991) – Challenges the modern constitution that separates human society from nonhuman nature
• Reassembling the Social (2005) – Outlines actor-network theory’s approach to studying humans and nonhumans
• Facing Gaia (2017) – Examines human existence in the age of the Anthropocene

Latour argues that humanity has never been the autonomous, nature-transcending entity assumed by modern thought. Instead, humans exist within complex networks that include nonhuman actors, from microbes to technologies to climate systems.

Rosi Braidotti and the Posthuman

Rosi Braidotti has developed a posthuman theory that moves beyond traditional humanism.

Key Works:

• The Posthuman (2013) – Critiques humanism and proposes an affirmative posthuman ethics
• Posthuman Knowledge (2019) – Develops posthuman approaches to knowledge production
• Posthuman Feminism (2022) – Connects posthuman theory with feminist politics

Braidotti argues that we need to move beyond the limitations of humanist thought to address contemporary challenges. Her posthumanism is not anti-human but seeks to develop more inclusive, sustainable ways of understanding our existence within planetary ecosystems.

These more recent philosophical perspectives challenge us to rethink traditional definitions of humanity that emphasized rationality, autonomy, and separation from nature. They suggest that human existence is more fluid, relational, and embedded in technological, ecological, and social systems than previously acknowledged in Western philosophical traditions.

W.H.L.: What about philosophers from the East? what did they say?

Claude Sonnet 4: Eastern Philosophical Perspectives on Humanity

Eastern philosophical traditions offer profound and distinctive insights on human nature that complement Western approaches. These traditions developed their own rich understandings of what it means to be human, often emphasizing harmony, interconnectedness, and the cultivation of consciousness in ways that differ from Western individualism and rationalism.

Classical Indian Philosophy

Vedanta Philosophy

In the Upanishads and later Vedantic thought, the essential nature of humanity is understood through the concept of Atman (the individual self) and its relationship to Brahman (the ultimate reality).

Key Works:

• Upanishads (800-500 BCE) – Particularly the Chandogya and Brihadaranyaka Upanishads explore the nature of self
• Brahma Sutras attributed to Badarayana (200 BCE-200 CE) – Systematizes Upanishadic teachings
• Bhagavad Gita (part of the Mahabharata, compiled around 400 BCE) – Addresses human duty, purpose, and relationship to the divine

Advaita Vedanta philosopher Shankara (788-820 CE) articulated the non-dualistic view that the individual self (Atman) is ultimately identical with Brahman. His commentary on the Upanishads (Bhasyas) elaborates this perspective, suggesting that our true human nature transcends the limited, separate self we typically identify with.

In contrast, Ramanuja (1017-1137 CE) developed Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism), arguing in works like Sri Bhasya that human souls maintain their individuality while remaining part of the divine reality.

Buddhist Philosophy

Buddhism offers a distinct perspective on humanity, denying the existence of a permanent self (anatman) and emphasizing the impermanent, interdependent nature of human existence.

Key Works:

• Dhammapada – Collection of sayings attributed to the Buddha
• Abhidhamma Pitaka – Philosophical analysis of mind and experience
• Mūlamadhyamakakārikā (Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way) by Nagarjuna (2nd century CE) – Explores emptiness (sunyata) and dependent origination

Nagarjuna developed the philosophy of Madhyamaka (Middle Way), arguing that humans have no fixed essence but exist as a nexus of interdependent relations. Human suffering arises from mistakenly perceiving ourselves as independent, permanent entities.

Vasubandhu (4th-5th century CE) in his Abhidharmakośa (Treasury of Abhidharma) and Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi (Proof of Nothing but Consciousness) analyzed human experience as a flow of momentary mental events rather than the product of a substantive self.

Samkhya and Yoga Philosophy

The Samkhya tradition, elaborated in Ishvarakrishna’s Samkhyakarika (c. 350-450 CE), presents a dualistic understanding of humanity divided between consciousness (purusha) and matter/nature (prakriti). Human suffering results from confusing these two aspects of reality.

Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras (compiled around 400 CE) builds on Samkhya metaphysics to provide a practical path for liberating consciousness from its entanglement with material nature through disciplined practice.

Chinese Philosophy

Confucianism

Confucian thought emphasizes humanity’s essentially social nature and moral capacity.

Key Works:

• Analects (Lunyu) – Compiled sayings of Confucius (551-479 BCE)
• Mencius (Mengzi) – Work by Confucius’s influential follower Mencius (372-289 BCE)
• Xunzi – Writings of the Confucian philosopher Xunzi (c. 310-235 BCE)

Confucius defined humanity through social relationships and ritual propriety (li). The concept of ren (humaneness/benevolence) stands as the highest virtue in Confucian thought, suggesting that our essential humanity lies in our capacity for compassion and proper social conduct.

Mencius argued that human nature is inherently good, with four innate “sprouts” or tendencies toward virtue that need cultivation. In the Mencius, he uses the famous example of a child about to fall into a well to demonstrate our natural capacity for compassion.

Xunzi took the contrary position that human nature is inherently inclined toward selfishness and requires the corrective influence of education and ritual to develop moral goodness.

Daoism

Daoist philosophy offers a naturalistic understanding of humanity that emphasizes spontaneity and harmony with the natural world.

Key Works:

• Daodejing (Tao Te Ching) attributed to Laozi (compiled around 4th century BCE)
• Zhuangzi – Work by the philosopher Zhuangzi (c. 369-286 BCE)
• Liezi – Later Daoist text attributed to Lie Yukou

The Daodejing suggests that human flourishing comes from aligning with the Dao (Way) rather than imposing artificial distinctions and striving. Chapter 25 famously describes humans as one of the “four greats” in the cosmos (alongside the Dao, Earth, and Heaven), suggesting our integral place within natural order.

Zhuangzi uses parables and paradoxes to challenge conventional understandings of human identity. His concept of the “true person” (zhenren) describes someone who has transcended artificial social distinctions to live in spontaneous harmony with nature. The famous butterfly dream parable questions the boundaries of human identity and consciousness.

Neo-Confucianism

Neo-Confucian philosophers, responding to Buddhist and Daoist influences, developed more metaphysical approaches to understanding humanity.

Key Works:

• Reflections on Things at Hand compiled by Zhu Xi (1130-1200)
• The Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean (two of the Four Books canonized by Zhu Xi)
• Records for Self-Reflection by Wang Yangming (1472-1529)

Zhu Xi developed a conception of human nature as fundamentally aligned with principle (li) but often obscured by material force (qi). Human cultivation involves clarifying one’s material nature to manifest one’s true principle-aligned nature.

Wang Yangming emphasized the unity of knowledge and action, arguing that moral knowledge is innate to human beings (the doctrine of liangzhi or innate knowing). In his view, authentic humanity involves recognizing and acting from this innate moral knowledge.

Japanese Philosophy

Zen Buddhism

Zen Buddhism offers insights into human existence through direct experience rather than conceptual understanding.

Key Works:

• Shōbōgenzō (Treasury of the True Dharma Eye) by Dōgen (1200-1253)
• The Gateless Gate (Wumenguan/Mumonkan) – Collection of koans compiled by Wumen Huikai (1183-1260)

Dōgen explored the nature of human existence through concepts like “body-mind dropping off” (shinjin-datsuraku) and the identity of practice and enlightenment. His essay “Genjō Kōan” (Actualizing the Fundamental Point) particularly addresses the relationship between the self and reality.

Modern Japanese Philosophy

The Kyoto School of philosophy developed unique syntheses of Eastern and Western philosophical insights on human existence.

Key Works:

• An Inquiry into the Good by Kitaro Nishida (1870-1945)
• Religion and Nothingness by Keiji Nishitani (1900-1990)

Kitaro Nishida developed the concept of “pure experience” and “place of nothingness” (mu no basho) as fundamental to human consciousness. Rather than seeing humans primarily as rational subjects opposed to objects, Nishida proposed a non-dualistic understanding where reality is experienced directly before subject-object distinctions arise.

Keiji Nishitani explored human existence in relation to nihilism and emptiness (śūnyatā). In Religion and Nothingness, he suggests that authentic human existence involves experiencing reality from the “standpoint of emptiness” rather than the standpoint of the ego-self.

Common Themes in Eastern Perspectives on Humanity

Despite their differences, Eastern philosophical traditions often share certain emphases in their understanding of humanity:

1. Integration rather than separation – Many Eastern traditions see humans as integrated within nature and cosmos rather than standing apart from them. The Daoist concept of humanity as one of the “four greats” exemplifies this perspective.
2. Relationality over individuality – Eastern traditions often emphasize that human existence is fundamentally relational. Confucianism defines humanity through five key relationships, while Buddhist dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda) sees humans as nodes in a web of interdependence.
3. Transformation through practice – Eastern philosophies typically provide practical paths for transforming human consciousness. Whether through yoga, meditation, ritual, or moral cultivation, these traditions emphasize becoming rather than static being.
4. Harmony as an ideal – Many Eastern traditions value harmony (with nature, society, and ultimate reality) as central to human flourishing. This contrasts with Western emphases on autonomy and mastery.
5. Beyond conceptual understanding – Several Eastern traditions, particularly Daoism and Zen, suggest that the deepest truths about human existence cannot be captured in conceptual language but must be directly experienced.

These Eastern perspectives offer valuable complements to Western philosophical approaches, suggesting ways of understanding humanity that move beyond the individual rational subject to embrace more holistic, embodied, and relational modes of being human. Their insights remain particularly relevant as contemporary humans navigate challenges of ecological crisis, technological transformation, and social fragmentation.

W.H.L.: Great! Thanks, Claude. Next time let’s spend some time to talk about the purpose and nature of philosophy: what philosophy is about and for, prior to and in AGI era. See you then.